Simply put us to the test: Whether juice or soft drink, still or sparkling, a classic variety or a new creation — we will provide a solution which entirely suits your product and your production conditions. LineXpress is a programme that enables non-returnable-PET lines for water or carbonated soft drinks to be changed over in record time: a brief interruption — and your line is ready for action again. With the Hydronomic water treatment systems, Krones provides an individual programme for careful treatment of your untreated water.
Not only the duration of the filling process, but also the air consumption and space requirement have been reduced — which is also easy on your budget.
The syrup room is the starting point for innovative taste sensations which your product designers repeatedly manage to conjure up. Back Complete solutions Start screen Energy and media savings Energy and media-efficient enviro products Back Energy and media savings Start screen Energy and media-efficient enviro products enviro Products Products Components, lines and plants for beverages and liquid food Contact. Products Components, lines and plants for beverages and liquid food Contact.
Back Products Start screen Machines Process technology Back Machines Start screen Process technology Process technology for beer Process technology for Craft Beer Process technology for juice Process technology for milk Process technology for soft drinks Process technology for spirits Process technology for water Steinecker Phoebus membrane filter Process technology Beverage production from one source Contact.
Back Digital Services Start screen Produce reliably Share2Act Watchdog Sitepilot Line Management Produce reliably Our digital services at a glance — the Krones Ecosystem has the appropriate solutions enabling you to benefit from the opportunities of tomorrow.
Back Digital Services Start screen Optimising your value chain Share2Act Assistance Optimising your value chain Our digital services at a glance — the Krones Ecosystem has the appropriate solutions enabling you to benefit from the opportunities of tomorrow.
Digital Services Our digital services at a glance — the Krones Ecosystem has the appropriate solutions enabling you to benefit from the opportunities of tomorrow. An introduction to the requirements for factory layouts and design is then followed by considerations of performance measurement and benchmarking. Chapter 10 deals with the increasingly important subject of production plan- ning and distribution. As a consequence of the high weight and comparatively low value of carbonated soft drinks, this topic is receiving much more attention than previously.
Supply chain management is discussed in relation to soft drinks, high- lighting its importance. It is no longer enough to just produce soft drinks, they must be produced uniformly every day and be distributed to the customer at the lowest possible cost if the producer is to stay in business.
Chapter 11 is on quality, environment and food safety; completing the picture by providing the framework within which manufacturing and distribution must now exist. The aim of this volume is to provide an overview of carbonated soft drinks production in the early part of the twenty-first century, presenting the latest infor- mation on carbonation and filling methods.
Detailed references provide opportunity for further reading in more specialised areas. Certain topics, such as ingredients and packaging, are not included in great depth here because they are covered in detail elsewhere in the series. The book is aimed at graduates in food science, chemistry, microbiology and engineering who are considering a career in the soft drinks indus- try, as well as technical staff already employed within the industry and associated suppliers.
The editors are greatly indebted to the contributing authors: without them this book would not exist. All are experienced in their particular fields and, for most of them, the work involved in writing their chapters was a significant extra burden on top of their already heavy workload.
The most obvious source of hydration is water, but in earlier times the consumption of water was very hazardous as it was frequently contaminated by micro-organisms. Outbreaks of cholera, dysentery and other waterborne illnesses were common in many European cities prior to the twentieth century. Barley waters, flavoured drinks con- taining pearled barley, were recorded as early as and the earliest English reference to lemonade was published in The drink contained lemon juice and was sweetened with sugar or honey and is thought to have originated in Italy.
Orangeade was also recorded in the s. All these early drinks were, of course, not carbonated. Production of effervescent alcoholic beverages, that is, beers and wines where the carbon dioxide was derived directly from fermentation, is recorded as begin- ning at the latest in , when Dom Perignon is credited with the invention of champagne. However, references to sparkling wines are found in English literature well before this date. Several spas were also known where the water was naturally effervescent and during the seventeenth century scientific interest and study grew in the gas which caused this effect, particularly at Spa in Holland and Pyrmont and Seltzer in Germany.
There was considerable scientific investigation across Europe of the gas we now know as carbon dioxide CO2 by the middle of the century. In , Macbride in Ireland demonstrated the medicinal uses of effervescent waters and their antiseptic properties. The discovery of the means of artificially carbonating water by dissolution of CO2 under pressure is attributed to Dr Joseph Priestley in the late s, though there were many other workers active in this field at the same time who probably deserve equal credit.
Torbern Bergman, Professor of Chemistry at Uppsala University in Sweden, published his work on preparation of artificial mineral waters in In , Duchanoy in France published a treatise on the art of imitating naturally occurring mineral waters. The initial commercial development, deriving from all this scientific work, was that of selling imitation mineral waters, that is, waters to which were added minerals in the proportions found in naturally occurring mineral waters and then artificially carbonated.
The commercial development of carbonated waters took off very rapidly following the initial scientific and technical discovery. Thomas Henry, a Manchester apothecary, is generally credited to have been the first commercial manufacturer of artificially carbonated water in the late s. The product was sold in tightly corked glass bottles.
Henry recommended consumption of lemon juice and soda water for the stomach but did not state whether the two were combined.
By the late s he was also selling artificially manufactured Pyrmont and Seltzer waters, that is, imitations of the naturally occurring spa waters. It was also claimed wrongly that soda water cured scurvy and one of the first uses of carbonated water was on board a ship. This was probably the cause of the misconception that CO2 was a cure for scurvy. The manufacture of carbonated drinks also rapidly became popular across Europe.
The production of mineral waters was well established by , and J. His former part- ner, Nicholas Paul also moved to London in and set up in competition with Schweppe. Paul is credited with the first commercial use of a high pressure gas pump to aid dissolution and achieve high levels of carbonation, his mineral waters were famous for containing several volumes of CO2. The first commercial production is attributed to Benjamin Silliman, who was professor of chemistry at Yale College.
Joseph Hawkins established an enterprise in Philadelphia the same year and operations rapidly sprang up in other cities in the north-east, for example, New York, Baltimore and Boston.
An excellent account of the development of the soft drinks industry in the USA was written by John J. By , there were at least 50 manufacturers in London.
At the Great Exhibition, held in London in , J. They sold in excess of 1 million bottles during the course of the exhibition. Throughout the nineteenth century the popularity of carbonated soft drinks increased steadily and the number of flavours expanded likewise, driven by the popularity of the temperance movement.
This growth of carbonates coincided with the industrial revolution through the nineteenth century. Production of soft drinks became more industrialised and a process of continuous improvement soon developed. It also lists approximately trademarks which had been approved between the passing of the Trade Marks Act in and , including that for the Buxton Mineral Water Co. Continuous improvement in production and packaging of carbonated soft drinks meant that by the middle of the nineteenth century a manual bottling line was capable of filling dozen bottles per day, but the introduction of steam power increased that to dozen per day.
By , it was estimated that 70, people were directly employed in the UK soft drinks industry and 22, horses were used for product delivery. For comparison, in , government statistics show that almost 18, people were employed in the soft drinks industry manufacturing, distribution, sales and marketing producing million litres of drinks. In , there were soft drink bottling plants in operation in the USA. The industries of the UK, Europe and USA progressed along slightly different paths owing to the differing circumstances found in those regions, although three types of beverage were found in each region.
The industry in the UK, which was becoming more industrialised with large factories supplying products to the masses, progressed along the path of industrial production of soft drinks in returnable bottles sold through shops.
In continental Europe the soda siphon type device i. These were used for the dispensing off of flavoured drinks, not just soda water.
The common soda siphon which we would recognise today was patented by Charles Plinth in The use of a small metal bulb filled with CO2 to re-charge a siphon of water was patented by Arthur Marescot in In the USA, soda fountain equipment, where drinks were produced in shops for consumption on site, also became very popular. Some carbonates were consumed purely as a source of refreshment but many retained their medicinal pedigree to a greater or lesser extent.
The most notable was probably quinine tonic water, which was consumed in tropical regions as a cure for malaria. Dandelion and burdock was obviously of herbal origin, and another popular drink in late nineteenth-century Scotland and in London during the s was Kola Tonic. Kola or cola was a nut from West Africa, which was used by Nigerians as a symbol of hospitality. In , Dr John S. Pemberton combined cola with coca an extract from the S.
In , Asa G. The company granted the rights to bottle the product under licence. The first such plant opened in Chattanooga in , followed rapidly by many more. Around the same time Dr Pepper was launched by R. Lazenby in Waco, Texas ca.
Bradham ca. By the close of the nineteenth century most of the common carbonated soft drinks of today were already on sale, for example, soda water, ginger beer, ginger ale, lemonade, orangeade and other citrus drinks, cherryade, quinine tonic water, bitter lemon, colas, sarsaparilla, root beer, cream soda etc.
These would all have been well known to consumers in the late Victorian era. There is a difference between the American and British definitions of soda water. It was given several names including artificial air Boyle , mephitic air Brownrigg , fixed air Black , gas acide carbonique Lavoisier and finally gaz oxide de carbon Fourcroy Crushed marble or chalk or limestone was cheap and readily available in large quantities.
However, the purity of the marble was critical to the quality of the CO2. This forced manufacturers to introduce filters and scrubbers to remove taints. Bubbling the CO2 through olive oil was a com- monly used method of removing organic taints. The purification of CO2 introduced complexity and hence cost to the production process. Although more expensive than marble, sodium bicarbonate could be obtained in commercial quantities at consistently high purity and was preferred by some manufacturers.
The product of the action of sulphuric acid on marble is calcium sulphate, which is insolu- ble in water. Large quantities of the resulting sludge were difficult to dispose of, particularly when the UK municipal authorities introduced controls in the s.
Problems of effluent emissions are not new. The liquification of CO2 by means of high pressure was reported by Michael Faraday in and the first practical manufacturing equipment was patented by Dr Henryk Beins in Holland in The commercial manufacture and use of liquid CO2 for the carbonation of drinks began in Germany and in the USA in the s.
The production of solid CO2 was discovered by Thilorier in , and a patent for the production and use of solid CO2 was granted to Dr Samuel Elworthy in The handling and transportation of solid blocks of CO2 was much easier than for heavy metal cylinders containing liquid CO2. Though use of liquid or solid CO2 increased in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, it was not until the s that transportation of liquid CO2 by low pressure bulk road tankers became commonplace.
Production of carbonated drinks was traditionally carried out by means of adding concentrated syrup to the bottle and then topping up with carbonated water.
Such continuous systems have gradually replaced the syrup dosing systems, though some of the latter remained in operation into the s.
Saccharin was invented in about and very rapidly became popular as a sweetener for soft drinks, usually blended into sugar to reduce cost. Figure 1. A modern supplier may have difficulty substantiating all of the claims made for it.
However, it proved to be a pop- ular sweetener in the UK, particularly when sugar was in very short supply during the First World War. A blend of sugar and saccharin 50 : 50 by sweetness became the standard sweetener system for common soft drinks, for example, lemonade.
However, the use of sodium cyclamate came to an abrupt end in when it was banned in the USA and UK from 1 January due to evidence suggesting that it caused bladder cancer. Cyclamate was not banned elsewhere and it remained a very popular sweetener until recent severe restrictions in the EU. The original work was later discredited but it resulted in saccharin being the only permitted sweetener in the UK and this severely limited the growth of low calorie drinks because of the unpleasantly bitter aftertaste of saccharin when used as a sole sweetener.
The growth resumed again in the mid- s following the approval of aspartame and acesulfame K in the UK in Manufacturers blended mineral salts in the same proportions as found in the natural spring waters and added carbonated water. A large range of such waters was available during the early s.
Early attempts at producing flavoured products were limited by a lack of stable flavour- ings and spoilage problems. By the second half of the century, carbonate manufacturers could buy a very comprehensive range of flavours to use in their products and the science of flavour chemistry was well under way, as demonstrated by the development of artificial vanillin by Tiemann and Wallach in As mentioned above, many of the popular drinks of today were on sale before The quantity of CO2 added to a drink has a pronounced effect upon its character and flavour impact.
The solubility of CO2 in water decreases as temperature increases but increases with increasing pressure, that is, a given level of carbonation will generate a higher pressure as the temperature increases. At CO2 levels and at temperatures above this, increased pressure must be applied to retain the CO2 in solution. Mixers require higher levels of carbonation because they are intended to be diluted with spirit before consumption. In the early s, colours were restricted to mainly variants of brown and red, that is, those which could be produced from caramel or cochineal.
This remained the case until the introduction of synthetic aniline dyes around It also strongly warned manufacturers not to use colours such as arsenic sulphate, lead chromate, mercury sulphate and copper arsenite, which it claimed were sometimes used to colour confectionery.
Table 1. The use of earthenware bottles proved to be unsatisfactory for the more highly carbonated aer- ated mineral waters and they were soon replaced by glass bottles. Many of the early glass bottles had round bottoms ensuring that they were stored on their side, thereby keeping the corks moist and so preventing leakage from corks drying out.
The man- ufacture of glass bottles was a skilled job as they were hand blown. Although some semi-automation had been introduced earlier, the first patent for an automatic glass bottle blowing machine was granted to Michael J. Owens in the USA in High pressure generated inside bottles by the carbonation caused frequent leak- age and, although improved by wiring-in-place, corks were generally unsatisfactory.
Many alternative forms of seals were patented over the years and these fell broadly into three main categories: 1. Wire and rubber sealing devices were especially popular in the USA until the early s. First patented by Charles de Quillfeldt in , this latter type is still currently in use for some speciality beers.
Variations on the theme of using an internal ball made from rubber, ebonite or glass were developed and used with varying degrees of success. The ball was held in place by the internal pressure. The most successful of these was patented by Hiram Codd of London. His bottle was widely used in the UK from the s until the s. A similar bottle, but with a floating rubber ball acting as seal, was patented in the USA by S. Twitchell in The third popular alternative was the internal screw top bottle.
These types of stoppers were in common usage well into the s in the UK. Ebonite, an early type of plastic resin material soon replaced wood, which had a tendency to absorb moisture, causing it to swell and crack the bottle neck. Although initially slow to gain acceptance for two reasons: a the existing large capital investment in returnable bottles and bottling plant, and b the need for a tool to remove the crown, the crown cork eventually became popular, especially for small single serve and beer bottles.
Screw stoppers retained their popularity for the larger bottles where re-sealability was important. Except for some speciality earthenware ginger beer containers, glass bottles were the only form of packaging for carbonates for over hundred years until the introduction of cans in the s. The development of cans, plastic bottles, high speed packaging lines and improvements to distribution systems have been largely responsible for the increase in availability, the decrease in real-term cost and the resultant increase in consumption.
The advent of railways and large steam ships in the s made transportation feasible and indeed drinks were exported from the UK to the USA as early as The export trade continued to expand and by the mids significant trade was being done with the far corners of the Empire.
This must have involved considerable cost and on a domestic basis the trade was on a much more local scale. The industry evolved as a multitude of local businesses operating in a small geographical area, though some larger companies operated several production plants in different parts of the country. Likewise the number of bottling plants in the USA grew to reach a peak of in , remaining fairly constant until around and then halved to by as improved productivity and dis- tribution started to have a significant effect.
More recently, the growth of cans and PET bottles at the expense of returnable glass has played a significant part in this continuing productivity improvement, which has been truly amazing. Likewise, integrated PET bottle blowing and filling oper- ations have also improved production efficiencies significantly.
In the USA especially, carbonates have dominated the soft drinks market and the carbonates market has been dominated by cola. The scale of carbonates consumption globally is truly impressive, amounting to a total of almost , million litres in The Americas North and South accounted for more than half of the total see Table 1.
Carbonate volumes increased from 2. ACNielsen have reported that in sales value of carbonates fell by 3. Whilst some of the recent fall in sales can undoubtedly be Table 1. It has also been reported in trade press that the sales of carbonated drinks in the USA have been virtually static for several years now, and have in fact declined marginally on a per capita basis.
On a per capita basis that represents a fall of 0. Three factors were largely responsible for the remarkable growth in popular- ity of carbonates: marketing, lifestyle and technology. This has been coupled with a massive increase in availabil- ity. Carbonates are now available at virtually every location; not just in shops and supermarkets, but in cinemas, sports centres, garages and railway stations and are frequently sold from refrigerated vendors for even better refreshment.
The trend has also been influenced by changing lifestyles and greater convenience. This trend has been helped by the move to out-of-town shopping centres easily accessible by car. A frequently ignored supply route for carbonates is that of dispensed drinks, that is, where the drink is supplied to the retail outlet in the form of a concentrated syrup, which is diluted with cold carbonated water at the point of serving to the customer by means of a fixed dispensing system.
This type of operation is commonly found in fast food outlets and large bars. The move away from returnable glass to PET has also provided for much greater flexibility in the range of available bottle sizes and hence consumer satisfaction. The introduction of modern technology has enabled considerable cost savings. This is just the continuation of a trend, which has resulted in a very significant long-term fall in the real prices of soft drinks, including carbonates.
Initially from the environmentalists, who perceived drinks packaging as a major source of waste and litter, because even though it represents only a relatively small percentage of total packaging waste, it is highly visible. Considerable light-weighting of both cans and bottles and reductions in both the amount and weight of outer packaging has reduced the waste associated from drinks and there is significant recycling of the metal content of cans.
However, the introduction of legislation, most notably in Germany, has had a major impact on the industry. Environmental issues will be dealt with in greater detail in Chapter There are currently concerted moves in many countries to ban fizzy drinks from schools.
Indeed some extremists have gone so far as to propose that they should not be sold within a given fixed radius of any school premises. Some schools already prohibit children from taking carbonated drinks into school, for example in lunch boxes.
The promotion of soft drinks to children, particularly by means of television advertising, has come under scrutiny and may well be restricted in the UK, as it already is in some EU countries, for example Sweden.
The headlines in the popular press cry out almost daily that fizzy drinks are responsible for not only making schoolchildren obese but also for their bad behaviour and the stunting of their learning abilities. There have also been anecdotal claims that the consumption of carbon dioxide can lead to depletion of calcium from the body with consequent adverse effects on bone density. This remains, however, a theory for which no convincing scientific evidence has been found.
Scientific studies, for example, by Heaney and Rafferty in , have found no excretion of calcium from the body associated with elevated consumption of carbonated drinks. At the time of writing, draft legislation is proceeding through the European Parliament concerning the addition of nutrients in particular vitamins and minerals to foodstuffs and any nutritional or health claims which may be made about them. Sales of diet drinks, waters and fruit juices have shown considerable growth.
In particular the increase in UK consumption of bottled waters has been phenomenal see Table 1. Year UK consumption million litres 25 75 The growth in low calorie carbonates since the mids has been almost as spectacular as that of bottled waters, from 84 million litres in to million litres in It is generally expected that these trends will continue as the consumer seeks a more healthy lifestyle but it must be remembered that not all consumers seek healthy products and one of the success stories of the past decade has been Red Bull, a so-called energy drink, and its multitude of imitators.
As part of this trend towards healthy and natural there has been a rapid growth in the number of drinks making use of the healthy heritage of spring or natural mineral waters, in both sweetened and unsweetened products, usually without colour. Vickery, Surrey. Limited, Surrey. Emmins, C. Soft Drinks; Shire Album Shire Publications, Buckinghamshire. Kirby, F. Gilbert Smith, London. Riley, J.
Mayfield Press, UK. The quality of the water used must, by necessity, meet very stringent standards, as each bottle or can of a given drink must be indistinguishable from all others. Statutory requirements as to the quality of a soft drink must be adhered to in each producing country. For these reasons, all the water used in a soft drinks plant must conform to an agreed specification. Each major soft drinks manufacturer has its own standards, developed over the years through trial and error.
These standards ensure that wherever a particular drink is produced the taste and quality are the same. In addition, risk to the consumer and to the business must be considered at all times. If the water used is contaminated in any way, the risk to the business increases. If we consider the water cycle shown as Figure 2. The figure helps us to understand why water treatment is required and why this treatment must be applied consistently because of where water could come from.
Water can change states among liquid, vapour and ice at various places in the water cycle, with these processes happening anywhere from virtually instantaneously up to millions of years.
Although the balance of water on the Earth remains fairly constant over time, individual water molecules can come and go. The water in an orange eaten yesterday may have fallen as rain in some country half way around the world last year or it could have been used million years ago by some dinosaur. Quite clearly the water cycle has no starting point. The sun drives the water cycle and heats the water in the oceans. Some of the water evaporates as vapour into the air, and ice and snow can sublimate directly into water vapour.
Rising air currents take the vapour up into the atmosphere along with water from evapotranspiration, which is water that is transpired from plants and evaporated from the soil. The vapour rises into the air, where cooler temperatures cause it to condense into clouds. Air currents move clouds around the globe; cloud particles collide, grow and fall from the sky as precipitation.
Some precipitation falls as snow and can accumulate as glaciers and ice caps, which can store frozen water for thousands of years. Snowpacks in warmer climates often thaw and melt when spring arrives, and the melted water flows overland as snowmelt. Most precipitation falls back as rain into the oceans or on to land, where, owing to gravity, it flows over the ground as surface run-off. A portion of run-off enters rivers in valleys, with streamflow moving water towards the oceans.
Run-off and groundwater seepage accumulate and are stored as freshwater in lakes. However, not all run-off flows into rivers. Much of it soaks into the ground as infiltration. Some water infiltrates deep into the ground and replenishes aquifers, which are saturated subsurface rock that stores huge amounts of freshwater for long periods of time.
Some infiltration stays close to the land surface and can seep back into surface-water bodies, as well as the ocean, as groundwater discharge, and some groundwater finds openings in the land surface and emerges as freshwater springs.
This cycle repeats itself in many ways all the time. During this cycle water picks up contaminants: it is said to be the universal solvent. Water has a tendency to dissolve a little of everything it comes into contact with. If, for example, it dissolves sulphur from an industrial chimney, it can form acid rain. When the water seeps through the Earth, it dissolves portions of the minerals present. Agricultural by-products, fertilisers, insecticides, bacteria and other contaminants are all present in the hydrological cycle.
They can be present in varying amounts in any water source. For this reason, it is important to regularly analyse the water supplied to a soft drinks plant and to install water treatment equipment that will ensure the water is treated to remove all contaminants to achieve the company water standard at all times. Water is usually supplied from two main sources. A soft drinks bottler either buys the water from a local water company or obtains it from a company bore- hole.
If the water is bought from a local water company, it is normally piped to the bottler to a minimum agreed standard. Water source Water volume km3 Freshwater Total water percentage percentage Oceans, seas and bays 1,,, None A borehole in the UK is normally licensed by the Envi- ronment Agency.
To gain a licence stringent testing is required. This testing will categorise the borehole water as natural mineral water, spring water or table water. Given that water is the main ingredient of a soft drink product, pro rata it attracts the least amount of investment within the industry. This chapter attempts to justify the spending of capital and the allocation of competent personnel resources to manage the water function.
If any problem occurs with the water, the reputation of the company concerned is at stake. All major producers of carbonated soft drinks have their own water standard. This usually requires treatment of all incoming water, except in the case of natural mineral water, where no treatment is allowed.
If the water supply is from the local water company, it is imperative that a good working relationship is set up. At certain times, owing either to maintenance or to drought, the source of the water supplied can change. Even though water companies have a statutory obligation to ensure that the water they supply is fit for use, this is to a much lower standard than is required to produce a soft drink, which must taste the same wherever and whenever it is made.
The UK Water Supply Water Quality Regulations state that: The problems associated with chemical constituents of drinking water arise primarily from their ability to cause adverse health effects after prolonged periods of exposure. There are few chemical constituents of water that can lead to acute health problems, except through massive accidental contamination of a supply.
In contrast, contamination of water supplies for a short period with harmful organisms can expose large sections of the population to health risks leading to illness and, in rare cases, to death.
The messages are clear: we should all be aware of the risks that contaminated water can pose. There is no excuse for not taking the correct actions to ensure that the water we use is of the required quality.
A typical water quality standard for soft drinks is shown in Table 2. To ensure that this standard is always met, it is necessary to regularly analyse the water: a full analysis should be carried out monthly, and on a daily basis basic parameters should be checked. There are now available simple testing kits for basic contaminants, often using tablets that can be added to water in a test tube, with the resultant colour of the liquid being compared against a colour chart to determine the concentration of chlorine and so on.
Table 2. In addi- tion to these simple chemical tests, regular testing for micro-organisms is necessary.
The removal of cryptosporidium has become one of the most important procedures. This standard needs to be regularly reviewed against what is actually being achieved.
Is the standard too rigid and too problematic to achieve? Have any product problems occurred since the previous review? What technical problems exist in actually achieving this standard with the water treatment plant available? Is further investment in plant required?
Do we meet current legislation? What future legislation could affect this standard? Such questions as these will allow the standard to be updated in the commercial world we live in. The key is to provide consistent water quality at all times without going over the top in terms of system sophistication. Risk analysis is a very necessary part of these deliberations. It is important to minimise risk at all times.
In the simplest terms, all water used for soft drinks must be free from micro-organisms, taints and odours, clear and colourless and, especially if it is to be carbonated, free from dissolved oxygen. At each production site the treated water should be tested for conductivity, turbidity, microbiological levels, taste, odour and appearance, alkalinity and free chlorine.
In addition, the incoming raw water should be tested daily for turbid- ity and microbiological levels. Most plants have an in-line turbidity meter that automatically shuts off the supply should the alarm limit be reached. Turbidity is defined as an expression of the optical property that causes light to be scattered and absorbed rather than transmitted in straight lines through a sample. Faecal streps should be absent in a ml sample. The international standard is ISO edn.
The principle of a turbidity meter is shown in Figure 2. Within the UK this supply is warranted to be potable, though not always suitable for the production of soft drinks. Each water supply company has its own water supplies, whether from a lake in Wales or the Lake District, a Scottish loch, a borehole, a river or de-salinated from the sea. UK water companies treat all the incoming water to meet the EU regulations. Some companies have dispensations with time limits imposed on them.
They are also responsible for the distribution system from the point of supply to the water treatment works and from these works to each customer. A factory usually receives its water from a specific water treatment works.
However, water can come from a variety of sources according to the level of drought. If there has been no appreciable rainfall for a considerable time, then the risk to a soft drinks company will increase. The water source will probably be more variable and, although potable, will require different water treatment levels from the norm. Another problem in the UK is the state of many pipelines.
Although these are being replaced, some still date back over a century, and such old installations can lead to contamination problems.
Even when pipelines are replaced, the act of replacement causes disruption and may result in ingress of excess silt into the system by back-siphoning. The user needs to be vigilant at all times. As all water is metered and water is becoming more expensive every day, it should be conserved as far as possible.
Most soft drinks factories use over twice as much water as they actually bottle — for example, in cleaning systems. Water usage needs to be monitored, as the cost to purchase water and the efflu- ent costs are very similar, especially if the COD chemical oxygen demand and BOD biological oxygen demand levels are high.
Water conservation needs to be practised at all times, commensurate with ensuring the integrity of the final product. The UK Integrated Pollution Prevention Control IPPC legisla- tion requires that waste be minimised by assessing the environmental impact of all materials used and produced on site, water use, and abatement of point- source emissions to surface water and sewers.
Assessment includes identifying how much water is taken into and discharged from the site, emissions to ground- water by map location of sewer and drain points, waste handling, basic energy requirements and TOC total organic carbon monitoring of water and sewer emission. By all industry sectors will have to comply with this legislation. This implies working closely with your water supplier, who will most likely also manage the effluent. The Water Regulations have replaced local water bylaws with national legislation.
In principle, the regulations govern the use of fixtures and fittings across a site and are designed to protect staff, customers and the environment from poor water quality and unnecessary waste.
The WFD rationalised and updated existing water legislation and introduced an integrated and co-ordinated approach to water management in Europe, based on the concept of river basin planning. The directive takes a holistic approach to water management and will update existing EC water legislation through the introduction of a statutory sys- tem of analysis and planning. The major aims of the directive are to prevent further deterioration and to protect and enhance the status of aquatic ecosystems and associ- ated wetlands, to promote the sustainable consumption of water, to reduce pollution of water with priority substances, to prevent deterioration in the status and to pro- gressively reduce pollution of groundwater and to contribute to mitigating the effects of floods and droughts.
It is clear that we all need to consider the latest legislation — both water supplier and user — and work together to ensure due diligence. In this case it is often better just to opt for spring water status, where some treatment is allowable. Most boreholes provide very consistent water quality from the aquifer at a constant temperature. In fact, they often supply water at lower than ambient temperature, which is highly conducive to efficient carbonation. Only when the aquifer is near the surface is there usually any risk, because little time is required to replenish from possibly contaminated land.
This could see the production of more technologies that help the bid towards cutting our single-use plastic. Last year, US-based Clear Water Manufacturing introduced a machine designed to rapidly sanitise and refill recyclable bottles with water at retail and hospitality locations. As blockchain, big data and AI technologies continue to improve, drinks companies will continue to find solutions to its largest problems while enhancing their market appeal to consumers.
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